THE ORIGINS OF SECONDARY AND TERTIARY
GENERAL EDUCATION IN RUSSIA: HISTORICAL
VIEWS FROM THE 21ST CENTURY
V. Romanenko, G. Nikitina
Academy of Information Technologies in Education, Russia
Abstract. The first steps of education in gymnasiums and universities in the main
East Slavonic states are described. The first town with teaching in Slavic languages was
Lithuanian Vilnius. Slavic education spread step by step from Lithuania via Polotsk and
Kyiv to Moscow. The first institution of higher education in Moscow was established in
1687. It was Ellino-Greek Academia. First Russian Academic Gymnasium and University
with the traditional curriculum were founded in 1725 in Saint-Petersburg. Yet, many
years after that, the students in the first Russian university were absent. The university
educational process in Russia started in 1755 at Moscow. So it took about 200 years to
bring University education from Lithuania via Belarus and Ukraine to Russia.
Keywords: Slavic language, Western oriented curriculum, theological schools, Moscow
University
Introduction: new challenges of modern education
and their historical background
Each educational system is built to meet the demands of social environment. Changing
environment immediately creates new educational demands. The full list of knowledge
necessary for normal life changes in accordance with changes in the social environment.
Some old skills and laws are not required any longer and some new ones become useful.
Therefore the time of active learning constantly increases. As the result, the period of
education gets longer in each century. Modern education is connected with new ways
of personal mobility like faculties, students, globalization of didactic technologies and
computerisation. These factors are serious challenges for university staff (Romanenko
& Nikitina, 2012). The education time comparisons of education technologies are usually
not long term. Moreover, they do not take into account geographical and cultural
specifics of an educational system. As a result, there is an urgent need for the critical
study of the origin of education in any country. The history of European education is
described in detail in several books (Riché, 2005; Heiman, 1985; De Ridder-Symoens,
1992; Cook, 1974; Gultek, 1995). However, education technologies in African and some
The Origins of Secondary and Tertiary General Education in Russia…
Asian countries may be regarded as in their infancy. Processes in the area where several
East Slavonic tribes lived may be treated as intermediate. Therefore, the main goal of
this article is to illuminate the process of the first steps of education at secondary and
tertiary levels in Russia. All data of interested knowing is presented in the well-known
sources. We only gathered it together and presented our results to the readers who have
curiosity to know something about the history of Russian education. The main part of
the materials was published in Russian. We provided the list of these materials in the
overview (Romanenko & Nikitina, 2000).
One has to discuss a set of problems to select correctly the original time for study.
Let us clarify the preliminary points. At first, it will be a concept of higher education.
Higher education is a process of creating special knowledge, skills and abilities – KSA.
These KSA are professionally oriented. However, education at the primary level creates
simpler KSA. Yet they are mandatory for all trainees. Secondly, let us determine the
general education for colleges with different structures which have timetables, standard
curriculum, and group classes. The standard curriculum remains the same from year to
year. Such education in Western Europe originated at the Renaissance (Riché, 2005;
Heiman M, 1985; De Rider-Symoens, 1992; Cook, 1974; Gultek, 1995). It is well known
that hierarchy of levels is necessary for this type of education. According to John Amos
Сomenius (Jan Komensky) (Schaller, 1962), the full curriculum requires no less than
four levels. The first level is elementary. It creates general KSA. Secondary and tertiary
levels create specified competences. After finishing the second level the students have
to be taught seven liberal arts. The University curriculum is usually divided into two
major levels. To enroll in the University, each freshman has to finish an independent
primary school. This system has been used in all Western European Universities since
the end of medieval ages (Cubberley, 1920).
The origin of higher education in the lands of East Slavonic population went slower
relative to the Western European states. Creating the new educational system took approximately
two centuries (Romanenko & Nikitina, 2000; Cubberley, 1920). The borders
of the states in this area were not stable at that time. Unlike Western Europe the cultural
and confessional space in the East European Slaves was more heterogeneous. Many of
different confessional and secular schools which were known in this area at this period
never influenced the curriculum of the future Russian Universities. Therefore it is necessary
to take into account the institutes where curriculum was partially taught in the
Latin and other languages. Slavonic and Greek languages taught using the curriculum and
Orthodox theology are necessary for determination of the objects of study. New schools
and scholar centers were not established immediately. It was a long lasting process. The
native inhabitants of East Europe had their own educational prehistory which affected
V. Romanenko, G. Nikitina
new schools. The historical development of three modern East Slavic nations was not
simple. It was more dramatic and complex than can be imagined at the first glance. Yet
in the area of inter cultural contacts these nations were very close. Their mutual affinity
was visible and positive. Respectively, it would be better to study their historical and
cultural growth together. The common history of these tribes permits one to study all
peculiarities of the origin of higher education in Russia.
Crescent way from Vilnus via Polotsk and Kyiv to Moscow
European development of medieval Kyiv Rus’ was interrupted by the invasion of
Mongolians. A few years after the fall of Kyiv on December 6th, 1240 the area of East
Slavic people was divided into two big parts. In one of them, small towns gradually
merged around Moscow. Eventually they became Russia. The second part incorporated
into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Eidintas et al., 2013; Magoocsi, 1966; Plokhy,
2010; Bain, 1908). The cultural level of incorporated Slavic population was high
enough to drive the native Lithuanian inhabitants into the area of Slavonic cultural
tradition. As a result, Lithuania transformed into so-called Drugaya Rus’. It may be
translated as Second Russia or Other Russia. The old Russian language became the
official state language in this state. The Grand Duchy of Lithuanian, Russian and
Zhemoitian became the official title of this State. In some ancient documents, one can
find the name of the inhabitants of this State. It was Christian people Russian and
Lithuanian (Eidintas et al., 2013). Stage by stage the situation in Lithuania changed.
In 1386 the so-called Union of Krew was formed. This was the first step towards
formation of the Union of Lublin of 1569. The new united state Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth was established. The Slavic areas were painlessly divided between
Polish Crown and Lithuanian Duchy (Eidintas et al., 2013; Magoocsi, 1966; Plokhy,
2010; Bain, 1908). These parts were the seeds of creation of two modern nations. The
first one was Ukrainian. It was under Poland. The second part was Belorussian. It
was on the Lithuanian land. Different confessions lived in peace for several decades
on the lands of this unified state. Catholic, Orthodox, and some reformation confessions
were recognized there in practical life. There was a period when the Gusist’s
rebels and Poland people discussed a possibility of creating a new union between
Commonwealth and Czechs. This idea was proposed at the time of reformats’ war
in the Czech’s lands.
A lot of different schools were established during this period in this part of East
Europa. In 1566, in the town of Vilnius, the school of civil law sciences was formed. In
1579, in the same town, Academia was established. The King Stephen Bathory transformed
it very soon into the University. The subjects in this University were taught not
The Origins of Secondary and Tertiary General Education in Russia…
only in Latin but also in Slavonic language. Moreover, a part of Orthodox literature
was printed there in the Latin language during this short period. Before the Vilnius and
Kyiv Academies were established all inhabitants of this area who wanted to study in
universities could move freely in the Western Universities. The most known and popular
Universities were the ones in Krakov, Prague, Padua, Bolognia, Leipzig, Wittenberg and
Königsberg. A number of South Russian towns adopted Magdeburg Law. Briefly, these
lands were a cradle of new East Slavonic culture and education. The main point of this
cultural region was Polotsk, one of the largest market cities of this time. It was the capital
of Duchy. In this part of the land they also started East Slavonic book printing, which
is connected with the famous name of Fransisk Skorina. He was born and received his
primary education in the town of Polotsk.
It is well known what happened later. Catholic activity started then in the part of
Poland Crown. Jesuits appeared in the State. They took all curriculum under the strict
control. Special colleges were created by them for these purposes. Polonisation of
Lithuania started. The University at Vilnius was temporarily closed. After its re-opening,
this University was transformed into a typical Western institution with curriculum
taught only in Latin. As result of these processes, the Cossack uprising led by Bogdan
Khmel’nitsky began (Toynbee, 1960). This Cossack uprising and civil war were of
inter-confessional nature in their form. These events caused a fight against Catholics in
Moscow. At the same time, a fight of the noble people of Orthodox confession started
in the areas around Moscow. Inter-confessional fight led to a creation of independent
Orthodox brotherhoods. These brotherhoods were originated as unions of laymen. They
recognized Orthodox fraternities as official. The primary Slavonic literacy was the main
goal of these brotherhood schools. Several famous persons of Slavic culture and arts got
their basic KSA in these brotherhood schools. At this time, the most powerful Orthodox
magnate was Prince K. Ostrozky. He was influenced by Western culture. At 1580 he
established a new Academy in the town of Ostrorog where they taught in Latin and the
curriculum was open to Greek.
Most leaders of the Cossack uprising were well educated. The most famous leader of
Cossacks Bogdan Khmel’nitsky had an excellent cultural background. He finished the
Jesuit College at Lviv (L’vov), and had good command of several foreign languages.
His officers were well educated too. The detachment of hired Cossacks of 2,000 persons
participated in the siege of Dunkerk in 1645 supporting France. Cossacks of John III
Sobiesky (Jan Sobiesky) were a key part of European troops during the second defense
of Vienna in 1683 (Toynbee, 1960). All these events prove good cultural background of
Cossack officers and their knowledge of foreign languages. Thus, the lands of Western and
South-Western Slavic population created the conditions for establishing fully Orthodox
V. Romanenko, G. Nikitina
Slavic education. In 1615 the fraternity of Kyiv established a brotherhood school which
after some transformations became the well-known Kyiv-Mohila Academy (Ševčenko,
1984; Hosking, 2012). It was named in honor of Petr Mohila, who was one of its founders.
This Academy was recognized by Russian Tsars. It was one of the oldest academic and
theological schools among the East European countries. This Academy was transformed
into a theological school at 1819 and was reborn as a non-state University in modern
times. We can say the problem of independent Orthodox education in the area of East
Slavs was solved after formation of this Academy.
So, during this period, the new culture and Slavic education spread through the whole
area of the East Slavic part of Western Europe. In particular, some Belorussian lands and
towns such as Polotsk and Vilnius side by side with Lviv (L’vov) were the first seeds in
the field of education of East Slavic languages. The Kyiv-Mohila Academy, and partially
the University of Vilnius were the first East-Slavic institutes of higher education. The
track of establishing Slavic higher education was in a form of a geographical arc: from
Lithuania and Belarus via Kyiv towards Moscow. In terms of time frame, the intensity of
this process was very high. The University at Vilnius was established in 1579, the Kyiv
Academy was established in 1632, and finally the Moscow Academy was established in
1687. The formation of the Moscow Academy is the final point of the preliminary stage
of educational reform in Russia.
This educational arc track from Vilnius via Polotsk and Kyiv to Moscow was in
the areas of three modern States: Belarus, Ukraine and Russia. Polotsk, Kyiv and
Novgorod the Great were the main towns of these areas at that time. The majestic
cathedrals of Holy Sophia were built in these three towns. These three cathedrals were
built nearly simultaneously. The first wooden church in Novgorod was established in
949. Soon it was rebuilt in stone. This reconstruction was finished in 1045. There are
two approximate dates of the Kyiv stone cathedral building. The first one was 1017,
the second was 1037. The Holy Sophia in Polotsk was erected in the period of 1044-
1066 (Ševčenko, 1984; Hosking, 2012). In traditional Orthodox confession, Sophia is
frequently treated as Divine Wisdom. The three cathedrals were built with principal
architectural novelty: they have five independent domes. It was the obvious influence
of the famous Holy Sophia Cathedral in the City of Constantinople (Bizantie). This
City was a traditional center of Orthodox culture and education. So, we can say these
three cathedrals were the symbols of education. They were very notable points on the
educational way from Western lands to Moscow. It is interesting to note the cathedrals
named by Holy Sophia are seldom in East Slavonic states. That is why we say the
ancient inhabitants of East Slavonic lands understood very well the real importance
of education.
The Origins of Secondary and Tertiary General Education in Russia…
The first Russian university
Unlike Lithuania and Poland, the problems with regular education in Muscovian
(Moscow) lands were more difficult (Kloczowski, 2008; Dawis, 1996; Kliuchevsky,
1913). Despite the difficulties connected with the Tatar-Mongol pressure, the contacts
between Moscow and Western Europe were active. However, no special institutions for
elementary and higher forms of education were known there at this period. Many authorities
of Moscow were very well educated. Some of them were influenced by Western
culture. Tsar John (Ivan) IV – John the Terrible, and his grandfather John III like several
noble persons left behind a great epistolary heritage (Dawis, 1996; Kliuchevsky, 1913).
Yet, in all these cases, one can see the results of personal teaching only. The need in
well-educated and excellently taught persons certainly existed in each State. Tsar John
IV tried to find a way to create a group of well educated persons. His death and the
death of his son Feodor meant the end of the Moscow branch of the Rurik Dynasty. The
new Tsar Boris Godunov was a brother-in-law of Feodor (Dawis, 1996; Kliuchevsky,
1913; Soloviev, 1976-1991). The unprecedented closeness of Moscow to many Western
countries was observed during his reign (Kliuchevsky, 1913). The documents of this
period say Boris Godunov dreamed about the formation of a high school in Moscow. It
was supposed that teachers would have to be invited from Western Europe. Godunov
repeated the idea of John the Terrible to send some young civilians to learn in England.
Yet, none of them returned back to Moscow.
After the death of Boris Godunov, a long period of the civil war, Polish invasion, and
several uprisings began. This period is known as the Time of Trouble, which finished
only in 1613. The reign of the new Romanovs’ Dynasty started. All Tsars of Romanovs’
house had a desperate need for well educated people. The young Russian State needed
persons with diplomatic competence, persons who could count taxes, operate with results,
and so on. The new Russian State claimed a new position in the Orthodox world.
Therefore, the problem of correction of Orthodox confessional books was created. We
shall not discuss the reform of Patriarch Nikon. Yet, we can say for its realization the
State needed to have well educated and competent persons whom Russia really did
not have at that time. We can say that the State needed the reformation of all kinds of
its existence and that there were no persons available for such work. We can’t say the
period of Tsar Alexis (Aleksei Mikhailovich in Russian) was calm. These were long
years of wars and uprisings. The result of the so-called Treaty in Pereyaslav in 1648
was the incorporation of the Left Bank Ukraine into Muscovia (Plokhy, 2010; Hosking,
2012). After this event a lot of educated monks under the auspices of Feodor Rtishchev
moved from Kyiv to Moscow. Famous Epiphanius Slaventsky was one of them. The
main goal of inviting these people to Moscow was to try them for teaching a new genV.
Romanenko, G. Nikitina
eration of Moscow youth. Tsar Alexis understood the need for well-educated persons.
He took serious care about the education of his own children. Well educated and gifted
in writing Simeon Polotsky (1629-1680) from Kyiv was invited for this purpose. Later
he took an active part in organization of the Slavonic-Greek-Latin Academy. The charter
of its establishment was signed in 1682. Yet, the Academy as a real institution began its
operation after 1685-1687. It operated under the guidance of two Greek monks. Over
70 students were enrolled in it.
Not only the children of Tsar Alexis were well educated. The closest assistants of
the Tsar, such as F. Rtishchshev and A. Ordin-Nashchekin, were also good educated and
knew several foreign languages. First of all, all of them knew Latin, and frequently Polish
and German. At this period, Polish language in the area of East Europe, like Latin, was
the main language of international contacts. One of the main persons of the next reign
was the Duke V. Golitsin. He is remembered as a brilliantly educated person. Golitsin
wanted to send the children of famous families for education in Western countries. This
idea was known earlier at the reign of John the Terrible. At the period of Alexis’ reign,
many noble persons were educated in Ukraine. For example, it was someone named
Ozerov who started as an assistant of Rtishchev in Kyiv-Mohila Academy.
During the period of Alexis’ reign, there was an intense growth of cultural development.
At this time a set of festivals in the palaces of the Tsar were accompanied with
different performances. All actors moved with the Tsar from place to place. Thus, the
need for setting up new educational institutions can be seen in the pre-Peter Russia. There
was a real base for foundation of these institutions. Yet, there were some problems with
finding the teaching staff. The first time when the State recognized this problem was at
the time of correction of Confessional literature. Competent persons were invited from
Ukraine for church reform, and also for personal education and educational institutions.
The Greeks were invited more carefully. They lived in the Muslims areas and that is why
they were frequently suspected in close contacts with Muslims priests, and scientists.
After agreement between Moscow and Cossacks at Pereyaslav many educated persons
moved from Ukraine and Poland to Moscow. The cultural flow from Ukraine to Moscow
at that time was as intensive as never again (Dawis, 1996). That is why the period
of the end of XVII till the beginning of XVIII century was the period of implementing
a set of educational, philosophical and confessional European ideas from Ukraine into
the Russian society. As a result, the teachers’ staff came to Russia via Ukraine in the
framework of the whole cultural stream. Most of new teachers belonged to the same
Orthodox confession as the native Russians. Opposite this, some personal teachers in
wealthy families sometimes belonged to the other confessions. To prevent this, the private
teaching was strongly forbidden immediately after the Slavonic-Greek-Latin Academy
The Origins of Secondary and Tertiary General Education in Russia…
had been established. All Russian authorities were afraid of Latin influence. Teaching
was allowed to Russian or Greek persons only. Yet, Greek teachers had to possess special
documents confirming their strong positions in Orthodoxy.
We can study now how the new forms of education were created in the Eastern part
of the Russian world. Contacts between Russia and Western countries existed at all times
of their history. Soloviev (1976-1991) wrote: “Our ancient history has more connections
with the West that we can imagine at the first glance”. The period of Tsar Alexis’ reign
was the most favorable time for establishing of inter-cultural contacts between Russia
and Western Europe. Also Soloviev wrote that this was the only period of Russian
history when it was organic unity of personal contacts and inter cultural exchange with
national originality.
The first institution of higher education was the well-known Slavonic-Greek-Latin
Academia. The first name of this Academia was Ellino-Greek Academia. It was founded
in 1687 at the reign of Feodor III (Feodor Alekseevich in Russian) who was the elder
brother of Peter I. Feodor Alekseevich ruled from 1676 till 1682 (Kliuchevsky, 1913;
Heiman, 1993; Soloviev, 1976-1991; Martin, 2008). The curriculum in the new Academia
included Slavonic, Greek, and Latin languages, seven free arts and theology. It
was a traditional curriculum of the West European universities at that time. Most of the
teachers in this Academy were of Kyiv and Polotsk origin. Some of them graduated
from Western Universities. By 1811, the special Russian University education became
quite effective. That year, the Academia was transformed into theological institution.
After a little while, in 1814 it was transformed again into the Ecclesiastical Academy.
This year it moved to the Troitse-Sergievskaya Lavra. It currently exists now in the same
form and in the same place.
This first institution of higher education in Russia did not meet all necessary requirements
of the University. The death of Tsar Feodor Alekseevich suspended the process
of creating a new educational system in Russia. It continued at the time of Emperor
Peter the First. His educational reforms were devoted primarily to establishing military
and medicine schools. In 1724 he signed the principal order. This order proclaimed the
foundation of the new Science-Educational system: Academy of Science, Academical
University and Academical Gymnasium (Romanenko & Nikitina, 2000). New members
of the Academy, named academical professors, were invited from Western Europe. Most
of the teachers of University faculties and gymnasium were also invited from different
Western Countries. The Academy as an active institution started in 1725 after Peter
the First’s death. The gymnasium also started its work without serious problems. The
process of teaching in the new University was more complex. Invited professors had
obligations to give a certain number of lectures and classes. Yet, there were no students
V. Romanenko, G. Nikitina
in this University and professors were forced to lecture each other. This Institution had
such a strange fate. Yet, all known documents supported the idea that this was really the
first regular University of Western type in Russia. Therefore, the celebration of the 275th
Anniversary of the first university in Russia, which took place in 1999 in Saint-Petersburg,
was not accidental. Continuous operation of the University began in Saint-Petersburg
from 1819 at the reign of Emperor Alexander I. So, it took about one century to organize
regular education in this institution. Approximately in the middle of this period,
namely on January 23rd, 1755, the Moscow University was inaugurated. This date is
celebrated every year as the Day of Russian students. For many years after this event
there was a dispute whether Saint-Petersburg University or Moscow one is the oldest
higher education institution in Russia. In the century after Peter I death some technical
high schools were also created in Russia. Several secular higher education institutes
were also formed between 1724 and 1819. So, a long way of formation of the system of
regular higher professional schools was successfully completed in the second decade of
the XIX century. After this, the Slavonic-Greek-Latin Academy was transformed into
a theological school. The Emperor Alexander I established many gymnasiums. During
the period of the following reign of Nikolay I, a number of higher professional schools
and Universities were set up. In view of this, we can say that in the first half of the XIX
century, the regular education in Russia at all necessary levels transformed into a strong
active system which itself was similar to the one of Western European countries.
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* Prof. V. Romanenko -член редколлегии журнала «Наука и жизнь Израиля».
8 Krasnoputilovskaya str., apt 4,
Saint-Petersburg, 198152. Russia
E-mail: putyatino1941@gmail.com
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